Dec23 –  A Constructed Language

Dec23 Syntax

Legend: Definitions, Terms, <Text>, [IPA], -Tags-, and "Glosses".

Overview

Syntax is determined primarily by the link types and agreement marking of the verbs and the conjunction particles. The conjunctions introduce adjunct clauses, complement clauses, and coordinate clauses. Initial clauses and relative clauses (which are distinguished by link type) don't need conjunctions. An additional particle is the polar question particle C PQ, which precedes the initial clause.

Qualifying a Noun

When a noun appears, it must follow a verb immediately and agree with that verb's gender agreement marking.

A noun may be qualified by any number of attributive predicates following it. After this, a relative clause may appear. Note that a noun following an attributive verb must not have any qualifiers. An attributive locational or genitive verb is used instead of a determiner.

Number

A proper noun has an inherent number, which is singular in most cases. A definite common noun (which lacks a determining verb) has the number it inherited from the reference where it was introduced. A noun with the non-referential qualifier lacks number. A noun with any other locational or genitive qualifier is singular unless a cardinality specifier appears. This is either an attributive quantity verb following the determining verb or the proclitic plural particle si- P- preceding it.

Locational and Genitive Verbs

Locational Verbs
Root Tag Description Gloss
iti Prox proximal demonstrative here, this/these
isu Medi medial demonstrative there, that/those
ilo Dist distal demonstrative yonder, yon
ico CQ content question where, which
ikn Ind indefinite some
ibn NR non-referential any

The personal genitive verbs replace the non-extant pronoun-marked forms of the general genitive verb sn Gen. All of the genitive verbs are used in possessive and other constructions.

Personal Genitive Verbs
Root Tag Person
hmo Gen:1S 1st person singular
hro Gen:1XP 1st person exclusive plural
hqo Gen:1NP 1st person inclusive plural
hso Gen:2 2nd person
hko Gen:3 3rd person

Partitives, Ordinals, and Superlatives

A partitive construction specifies an indefinite referent which is selected from some whole. An ordinal construction specifies a definite referent selected from a whole according to numerical position in a group. A superlative construction also specifies a definite referent selected from a whole, in this case according to superiority with respect to some scale of comparison.

A partitive consists of a noun specifying the cardinality of the selected part followed by a genitive qualifier denoting the whole. The noun used is one of the regular patient derivations of a quantity verb; it agrees with the whole in gender.

An ordinal construction consists of an ordinal number, an optional cardinality specifier, and a genitive qualifier (as with the partitive). The ordinal number is a noun and the cardinality specifier is an attributive quantity verb.

A superlative construction consists of a superlative, an optional cardinality specifier, and a genitive qualifier (as with the partitive). The superlative is a noun and the cardinality specifier is an attributive quantity verb.

Clause Structure

A clause is either an initial clause, an adjunct clause, a complement clause, a relative clause, or a coordinate clause. Adjunct, complement, and coordinate clauses are introduced by conjunctions and their head predicates (which follow immediately) may have either null or coreferential link type. Initial and relative clauses lack conjunctions, beginning with the head predicate; an initial clause head has null link type and a relative clause head has relative link type.

The head may be followed by adverbial and oblique predicates, which may be qualified. An adverbial predicate has adverbial link type and an oblique predicate has oblique link type. Oblique constructions are what's used instead of additional arguments, prepositional phrases, and secondary predicates.

Adverbial Constructions

There are manner adverbs, degree adverbs, and temporal adverbs. Manner adverbs are used for specifying the manner of an action. Degree adverbs are used for number of occurrences, number of iterations, and duration as well as for non-temporal qualifications. Temporal adverbs specify the time when a situation takes place.

Copular Clauses

In a copular clause, the copula to Cop appears twice: once for the subject and once for the complement, either of which can be the head of the clause and neither of which can have the null form. Copular clauses are used for definition, with non-referential complements, and identity, with other complements. The copula is not used for existence.

Sentence Structure

A sentence is either a statement, question, or a command and is made up of a series of clauses, the first of which is the initial clause.

A polar question sentence is identified by the presence of the polar question particle C PQ preceding the initial clause. A content question sentence is identified by the presence of some content question indicator, such as either a content question verb root or the content question pronoun.

A command is identified by the imperative mood marking on the head verb of the initial clause.

Multiple complement and/or adjunct clauses are semantically nested.

Coordinate Clauses

A coordinate clause is sequential to either an initial clause, a relative clause, or another coordinate clause; in some instances, subordinate clauses may intervene. Each coordinate clause is introduced by a coordinating conjunction, which should be the same for each coordinate clause in the sequence. The coordinating conjunctions are as follows:

Coordinating Conjunctions
Word Tag Description
- - -

Relative Clauses

A relative clause is headed by a coreferential verb form; the implicit argument of this verb is relativized, qualifying the head noun of the phrase (skipping any intervening attributive arguments).

Complement Clauses

A complement clause acts as an additional action argument to the preceding matrix clause. It's introduced by the complementizing conjunction ku Cpl. The form of the head verb may be direct coreferential, inverse coreferential, or post-conjunctional. Except in the last case, the head verb of the complement clause coreferences an argument in the matrix clause.

A compound tense consists of an aspect plus a tense. The aspect is specified by the tense of the head verb of the complement clause, with past tense for perfect aspect, future tense for prospective aspect, and present tense for progressive aspect. The verb osl "become known" is usually used as the head verb of the matrix clause, mainly with past or future tense, and with null agreement. The head verb of the complement clause is post-conjunctional.

Adjunct Clauses

An adjunct clause follows its host clause and is introduced by one of the subordinating conjunctions. The form of the head verb may be direct coreferential, inverse coreferential, or post-conjunctional. Except in the last case, the head verb of the complement clause coreferences an argument in the host clause.

Subordinating Conjunctions
Word Tag Glosses Description
- Tmp after, before, while temporal relation
- - because reason, cause
- - for purpose
- - by means
- If if condition

The temporal relation between a temporal adjunct clause and its host clause is specified by the tense of the head predicate of the adjunct clause.

Temporal Relations
Name Description
Past host time after adjunct time
Future host time before adjunct time
Present host time during adjunct time

Scalar Syntax

In a comparison, some scalar verb root (typically descriptive or experiential) specifies the scale of comparison used; where it appears depends on the particular construction. There is also a subject of comparison, which is compared to some explicit or implicit standard of comparison and there is a direction of comparison, specified by the scalar predicate. Finally, there may be a degree of comparison.

Positive, Negative, and Normative

Most scalar verb roots come in pairs of positive and negative, denoting different directions of the same scale. There is also a neutral direction marked with the normative scalar verb derivation; it may appear with either positive or negative verb root. One use of the positive, negative, and normative is in comparisons to an implicit standard appropriate to the modified or qualified noun or pronoun.

Comparatives and Equatives

Another use of the positive, negative, and normative is in explicit comparisons, where the standard of comparison is headed by the oblique form of the verb pil "compare". The term equative is used with the normative and the term comparative is used with the positive and negative. The scale of comparison may appear as the head verb of the clause, a qualifying verb, or an adverb of manner. The subject of comparison is the noun phrase following the head verb or the pronoun inflection.

Sometimes, an entity may be compared to its past or future self; in this case, the standard of comparison is represented by the reflexive pronoun, with past or future marked on that verb.


Additional Syntax

Conditional Sentences

A conditional sentence consists of a condition sequence terminated by the subordinating conjunction yas "if" and a conclusion sequence acting as the host.

Contrafactuals

When contrafactual, a main sequence becomes a complement sequence whose matrix verb is a form of the verb šb "imagine", which always has present tense in this construction and is either a 3rd person intransitive or conjunct person transitive.

Satisfactive Sentences

A satisfactive sentence consists of a satisfactive part and a result part. The satisfactive part is a sequence containing at least one satisfactive inflection. The result part may be a conditional sentence or just the conclusion. If the sentence is one of potential, the result part is subordinated to the satisfactive part using the conjunction Sub. But if the sentence is factual or contrafactual, the satisfactive part is subordinated to the result part using the conjunction "because".

Quoted Sentences

Direct quotations are terminated by the particle kwa Quo; there's no introductory particle.

Topic and Focus

A topic may be defined using a topic predicate....

When a singular local pronoun is the topic, the head verb is marked for person agreement with it. However, if the pronoun is focused, the verb is marked for 3rd person agreement. Unlike other pronouns, singular local pronouns appear only as topic or focus.

Constructions involving relative and copular clauses can also be used for focusing.

When used for focusing, the copular complement is the focus and the subject is specified by a relative clause.


page started: 2017.Dec.26 Tue
current date: 2017.Dec.27 Wed
content and form originated by qiihoskeh

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